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Hauraki Gulf's fish stocks continue to fall

Updated 4:17pm: The fishing and farming sectors are being called on to do more to help the recovery of the Hauraki Gulf.

The State of our Gulf report is released every 3 years, and this year's iteration shows fish stocks are continuing to fall - including snapper.

Nitrogen loads carried by rivers and dumped in the Gulf and sediment are continuing to build up.

Hauraki District Council mayor John Tregidga is calling out the business sector, saying it is time it took a leading role in helping fix the Gulf.

He says it is "nonsense" for anybody to claim helping the Gulf's recovery does not make economic sense.

Dr Shane Kelly, who helped in creating the report, says a lack of unified approach by fishers who use the harbour is hindering progress.

He says the commercial and recreational sectors are keen to blame each other, but there needs to be a common alliance.

Birds such as the black petrel are increasingly at risk too.

 this is a big read and this is only the summary but it could be of a major concern for recreational fishermen in the gulf.

Recent Media Releases

Auckland's Hauraki Gulf in dire straits

mailto:[email protected]?subject=Aucklands%20Hauraki%20Gulf%20in%20dire%20straits" rel="nofollow - JESS ETHERIDGE   on 5/09/2014

The Hauraki Gulf is in dire straits with more boat owners contributing to the degradation

of one of the country's most used marine sites.

And experts warn if no action is taken the gulf will continue to decline.

The 2014 report has been put together by independent environmental consultants Coast and Catchment, Johanna Pierre and  http://www.maramatanga.co.nz/about" rel="nofollow -  

Boat ownership numbers are climbing and will drive demand for more boat ramps and moorings around the gulf.

''Thousands of tonnes of fish and shellfish are extracted from the gulf every year by both recreational and commercial fishers."

''Much of the commercial catch is taken using methods that disturb the seabed.''

Around 12,450 bottom trawls took place on the gulf between 2011 and 2013.
 
There were more than 27,000 commercial scallop dredge tows between 2010 and 2012.

The report said while much positive change is taking place on land, little progress is being made towards enhancing fisheries or the creation of new marine protected areas.

Concerns over state of Hauraki Gulf By: http://www.newstalkzb.co.nz/Auckland/news/byline/Michael-Sergel" rel="nofollow - Michael Sergel , http://www.newstalkzb.co.nz/Auckland/news/nbnat/" rel="nofollow - New Zealand News Tuesday September 23 2014;

A three-yearly State of the Environment Report being presented to the Hauraki Gulf Forum today, shows ongoing issues with toxic chemicals and over-fishing.

Hauraki Gulf marine life in decline — report

Read more:  http://www.3news.co.nz/nznews/hauraki-gulf-marine-life-in-decline--report-2014092917#ixzz3EljuZw1E" rel="nofollow - http://www.3news.co.nz/nznews/hauraki-gulf-marine-life-in-decline--report-2014092917#ixzz3EljuZw1E

A report into the decline of the Hauraki Gulf says we've reached a crossroads and need to act. That could mean more cuts to fishing quotas.

Lead author Dr Shane Kelly says while the gulf's island biodiversity is doing well, the marine environment is struggling, with its Brydes Whale population at high risk and snapper numbers falling.

Dr Kelly says. "It's the fishing effects right across the gulf."

The Hauraki Gulf Forum will release its plan next year to recommend ways in which the gulf should be managed. It admits that may involve short-term sacrifices and is hinting at fishing quota cuts.

Read more:  http://www.3news.co.nz/nznews/hauraki-gulf-marine-life-in-decline--report-2014092917#ixzz3EljmCnVG" rel="nofollow - http://www.3news.co.nz/nznews/hauraki-gulf-marine-life-in-decline--report-2014092917#ixzz3EljmCnVG

http://www.newstalkzb.co.nz/auckland/listen-on-demand/audio/29484614-Dickens-Around--Tiri-Tiri-Matangi" rel="nofollow - - Hauraki Gulf

Residents of Hauraki Gulf are asking for a greater role, in how it can be protected for generations to come.

The latest three-yearly State of the Gulf report has found a raft of serious issues with toxic contamination, dairy run-off and over-fishing.

Waiheke Island Community Planning Group secretary Christopher Wragge says Auckland Council Unitary Plan should include better administration of the Gulf. He says the current way of doing things doesn't work.

"We all want to go fishing, we all want a healthy Gulf, we all want to care for it, but when it comes to the reality, we're all going around in circles a bit."

http://www.3news.co.nz/nznews/hauraki-gulf-marine-life-in-decline--report-2014092917#ixzz3EljuZw1E" rel="nofollow - http://www.3news.co.nz/nznews/hauraki-gulf-marine-life-in-decline--report-2014092917#ixzz3EljuZw1E

Hauraki Gulf's fish stocks continue to fall

By:  http://www.newstalkzb.co.nz/Auckland/news/byline/Dylan-Moran" rel="nofollow - Dylan Moran ,  http://www.newstalkzb.co.nz/Auckland/news/nbnat/" rel="nofollow - New Zealand News Monday September 29 2014

The State of our Gulf report is released every 3 years, and this year's iteration shows fish stocks are continuing to fall - including snapper.

Dr Shane Kelly, who helped in creating the report, says a lack of unified approach by fishers who use the harbour is hindering progress.

He says the commercial and recreational sectors are keen to blame each other, but there needs to be a common alliance.

State of our Gulf 2014

Hauraki Gulf – Tikapa Moana/ Te Moananui a Toi

State of the Environment Report 2014

Summary

Boat ownership is already high and boat numbers are expected to increase, leading to extra demand for boat ramps, moorings and marina facilities. Thousands of tonnes of fish and shellfish are extracted from the Gulf every year by both recreational and commercial fishers.

Much of the commercial catch is taken using methods that disturb the seabed. Around 12,450 bottom trawls occurred in the Hauraki Gulf between 2011 and 2013, and 27,600 commercial scallop dredge tows between 2010 and 2012

6. Environmental Indicators

6.1 FISHERIES

Overview

Of the top 15 species of fish commercially caught in the Hauraki Gulf:

• 3 are at or above their target biomass,

• 1 is below its target biomass,

• overfishing is about as likely as not to be occurring for 1 species,

• 3 species are not thought to be at risk of collapse, but not enough is known about their

stocks to properly assess their current status,

• the current status of 7 species is unknown.

Fishing has reduced the biomass of snapper and crayfish populations by around 70–80% in

the Hauraki Gulf. It has also altered their size and age composition, with populations now

dominated by small and young animals, with few large old individuals.

Large reductions in snapper and crayfish populations have altered the functioning and intrinsic values of reef ecosystems within the Hauraki Gulf. In protected areas, predation by snapper and crayfish has a major influence on kelp forest cover and reef productivity. In fished areas, the lack of snapper and crayfish predation leads to a reduction in kelp forest cover and lower reef productivity.

The 2013 snapper stock assessment indicates that snapper biomass has increased since the late 1980s, but it remains below its soft limit and further rebuilding is required. The assessment concluded that the target for the Hauraki Gulf-Bay of Plenty substock needed to be above 30% of the unfished biomass (B0). However, the stock assessment did not determine what the stock’s target should be. An interim target was established for the stock of 40% of the unfished biomass (B0), which the harvest strategy standard prescribes as suitable proxy for low productivity fish such as snapper.

In the 2011-12 fishing year the actual catch of snapper was estimated to exceed the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) by around 20%. This was primarily attributed to an increased recreational take. It was estimated that the TAC needed to be reduced by 54% percent to allow the stock to rebuild to the interim target within the timeframe specified by MPI’s harvest strategy.

The Minister for Primary Industries increased the snapper TAC by 6.6% and introduced a range of other management measures, which include, among other things,

reducing the recreational bag limit,

increasing the recreational size limit,

installing vessel monitoring systems on all commercial vessels,

requiring all catch under the commercial legal size to be reported,

and establishing a Snapper 1 Strategy Group tasked with developing a long-term plan for the

management of the stock.

The commercial methods used to fish for snapper do, or are likely to, have a significant impact on other parts of the ecosystem. Serious concerns are emerging about the impacts of long lining on seabirds, and bottom trawling occurs in areas that are known to include sensitive marine habitats.

Slowing growth rates, diminished habitat quality, reduced habitat availability, and altered ecosystem dynamics are likely to have reduced the productivity of the snapper stock, and the capacity of the Hauraki Gulf to sustain snapper populations at historic levels.

Crayfish have gone from being the third-most ecologically important benthic invertebrate group in the Hauraki Gulf, to the least important group. In areas of low biomass, they could be regarded as being ecologically extinct.

Natural crayfish behaviours that are commonly observed in protected areas are rarely (if ever) reported in fished areas (apart from immediately around marine reserves).

Crayfish in the Hauraki Gulf and Bay of Plenty is estimated to be 20% below its current management target, but is considered to be 36% above the biomass required to produce the maximum sustainable yield.

The commercial catch for the CRA2 stock was reduced by approximately 15% from 1 April 2014 to allow the stock to rebuild to the management target. The catch reduction seeks to improve catch rates, but does not explicitly consider the role of lobsters in the broader ecosystem processes, nor does it consider values other than those related to fishing. No changes were made to the allowances for customary or recreational fishers from 1 April 2014.

In 2011, commercial fishers discovered a large scallop bed that had previously been unfished. The area is known to contain sensitive marine habitats. High scallop densities coupled with the large size of the bed means that this area is likely to be subject to ongoing disturbance by scallop dredging, which is likely to compound the disturbance cause by bottom trawling.

Other areas dredged for scallops are also known to contain sensitive marine habitats.

Trends in cockle abundance have varied at the six sites that are regularly monitored by MPI in the Gulf, but all sites have displayed declining trends in the proportion of harvestable sized cockles. This is likely to be due to the recruitment of small cockles, which will subsequently grow through the population and increase the proportion of harvestable sizes.

New Zealand’s fisheries are managed using a quota management system, which was introduced in 1986 to address a concerning decline in some fish stocks. Under this system, New Zealand’s

coast is divided into quota management areas (QMA), which can vary among species (Lock & Leslie

2007). The Minister for Primary Industries must set the total allowable catch (TAC) in tonnes for

quota species within each QMA, which is apportioned to customary, commercial and recreational

users. Priority is given to ensuring that there is sufficient allowance for customary harvest, and the

remaining catch is divided between the commercial and recreational fishing sectors (Lock & Leslie

2007).

The Minister is required to set a TAC that will maintain each stock at, above, or working towards a

level that can produce the maximum sustainable yield (MSY). The MSY is the greatest yield (catch)

that can be achieved over time while maintaining the stock’s ability to keep producing. The MSY for

a given stock will depend on its biology and environmental influences on its population dynamics.

Typically, the MSY is produced by a stock at a biomass level (BMSY) well below its unfished state,

because increased productivity occurs in smaller populations that comprise younger, faster growing

fish that have less competition for food and space. The Fisheries Act provides for stocks

to be managed at biomass levels greater than the BMSY where various factors indicate the purpose of the Act would be better achieved by a higher target biomass. These factors can include management of specific environmental risks, or achievement of particular social, cultural or

economic objectives. The legislation also requires that all sustainability decisions must take into

account: effects on associated and dependent species; the maintenance of biological diversity; and,

protection of habitat with particular significance for fisheries management.

The Minister tightly regulates the amount of fish able to be commercially harvested by setting

an annual total allowable commercial catch (TACC). The TACC for each species is shared among

commercial fishery participants that own individual transferable quota (ITQ) for that species. The

proportion of the total quota shares they possess is equal to the proportion of the TACC they are

allowed to take in any fishing year. Owing to the reporting required for the commercial sector, it is

usually relatively simple to obtain information on commercial catch levels (Lock & Leslie 2007).

The Māori customary fisheries regulations (‘Kaimoana’ regulations) also require reporting to MPI.

However, reliable records of customary fishing are not yet available for the Hauraki Gulf. Māori are

also commercial and recreational fishers, and are required to conduct those activities in accordance

with the appropriate regulations (see Case Study: Māori Fishing).

In contrast, recreational harvesting is managed using multiple measures such as seasonal closures,

bag limits, size limits, and restrictions on fishing equipment and locations. Reporting of recreational

catch is not required, therefore recreational harvest quantities are estimated through various

methods such as aerial and boat-ramp surveys. Consequently, the size of the recreational catch

is more uncertain and can change in an unknown fashion with changes in the size of the fishing

population, stock biomass, fishing patterns, and/or access to sophisticated fishing technology.

Within this report, fishery indicators are considered in terms of the state of the environment,

rather than the state of the fishery. Fisheries assessments seek to maximise the yield, while

maintaining the stock’s productive capacity. This is achieved by deliberately fishing down stocks

to levels where productivity is maximised. Models indicate that this usually occurs somewhere

between 30 and 60% of unexploited levels (Mace 2001), but it can be lower. As a result, fishing is

a major environmental stressor that affects the whole of the Gulf. In this report fisheries data is

therefore interpreted from an environmental management perspective, rather than from a fisheries

sustainability or productivity standpoint. However, there is considerable overlap between the two,

and the objectives sought for fisheries overlap those sought for the Hauraki Gulf. Sustainability

indicators developed by MPI are therefore provided in Section 6.1.1 below. These are complemented

by more detailed information on:

• the state of three ecologically, economically and culturally important species (snapper, crayfish and cockles), and

• bottom disturbance.

6.1.1 INDICATORS OF FISHERIES SUSTAINABILITY

Sustainability indicators for the top 15 inshore finfish species caught in the Hauraki Gulf (by catch

weight) are presented in Table 1. Depending on the species, these indicators are assessed in relation

to:

1. quota management areas, which are much larger than the Hauraki Gulf, or

2. north-eastern New Zealand, Hauraki Gulf and Bay of Plenty substocks, which are contained within, or include parts of the Hauraki Gulf.

The status of fisheries and stocks is characterized by MPI in the following way:

• overfishing: If average fishing mortality is higher than the rate that will produce the MSY (or another appropriate target), overfishing is deemed to be occurring. If overfishing continues, such

stocks will ultimately be depleted below the biomass that produces the MSY.

• depleted (below the soft limit): If stock levels reach less than 50% of the biomass that will

produce the MSY, or 20% of unfished stock levels (whichever is higher), they are depleted (or

overfished) and in need of rebuilding.

• collapsed (below the hard limit): If stock levels reach less than 25% of the biomass that will

produce the MSY, or 10% of unfished stock levels (whichever is higher), they have collapsed.

The Harvest Strategy Standard for New Zealand fisheries specifies that for stocks falling below the

soft limit, a formal, time-constrained rebuilding plan is triggered, whereas fisheries closures should

be considered if stocks fall below the hard limit (Ministry of Fisheries 2008).

Of the 15 key species listed:

• 2 species (red gurnard and kahawai) are at or above target levels and are not considered to be depleted or at risk of collapse.

• Snapper is below the target level and needs rebuilding. It is not at risk of collapse in the short term, but a reduction in catch is likely to be required to prevent the stock declining towards

collapse over the medium to long term (see Section 6.1.3 for more detail).

• John dory is likely to be below its target level in the North East New Zealand – Hauraki Gulf substock, and about as likely as not to be at or above the target in the Bay of Plenty substock.

Neither of these substocks are considered to be depleted or at risk of collapse.

• 3 species (pilchard, baracoutta and grey mullet) are not considered to be at risk of collapse, but not enough is known about these stocks to assess their status against targets and limits.

• Overfishing of trevally is about as likely as not to be occurring, but this cannot be confirmed because of a lack of reliable data. Not enough is known about this stock to assess its status against targets and limits.

• For the remaining 7 species (jack mackerel, tarakihi, flatfish, yellow-bellied flounder,

leatherjacket, rig and parore) the status of the stocks is unknown, because an appropriate

quantitative analysis has not been undertaken or because the analyses that have been carried

out have not been definitive enough to assess their status.

Changes in the status of stocks since the 2011 State of our Gulf report are listed below.

• Snapper: The SNA1 stock status was reassigned from ‘at target levels’ and ‘not depleted’, to ‘well below target levels’ and ‘mildly depleted’. The change in status was caused by a change in the target level rather than a decrease in the stock biomass (biomass has increased since the 1980s).

• John dory: In 2010 there was insufficient information about the status of the North East

New Zealand – Hauraki Gulf or Bay of Plenty John dory substocks to determine whether the

substocks were at their target levels. Additional information collected since 2010 indicates that

the North East New Zealand – Hauraki Gulf substock is likely to be below its target level, and the

Bay of Plenty substock is about as likely as not to be at or above its target.

• Red gurnard: In 2010 there was insufficient information about the status of the East–Bay of

Plenty gurnard substock to determine whether the stock was at its target level. Additional

information collected since 2010 indicates the stock is currently around the target level.

Insufficient information is available to determine whether overfishing is occurring, but

catch rates have been relatively consistent since 1986–87, suggesting that they are probably

sustainable.

6.1.2 CASE STUDY: MĀORI FISHING

Kaimoana has always been an important taonga for Māori, primarily as a food resource and additionally as a means to enhance mana; if you had access to abundant kaimoana you could

provide it to your guests and also use it for trade. Today kaimoana remains just as important

to Māori as a food source and means to enhance mana. Collectively, Māori are also the largest

group in the New Zealand fisheries, controlling over a third of the industry, a position which is the

culmination of negotiations with government that started in the late 1980s and finalised by the

Māori Fisheries Act in 2004.

Māori/iwi organisations have a reasonable proportion of the commercial quota for the Hauraki

Gulf (~40%), with which they hope to generate an economic yield for the organisations they own,

and ultimately their beneficiaries. Many iwi organisations also seek to implement the concept

of kaitiakitanga in their activities, including commercial fishing. The expression of kaitiakitanga

requires Māori to take into account the sustainability of individual species, the broader impacts

of fishing, the ability for whanau, hapū and iwi to obtain food for their needs, and the economic

returns that fisheries provide to iwi. The challenge is to get the balance right, and to determine

how that should be decided, recognising that there is no single voice for Māori.

All commercial fishing is subject to the Quota Management System (QMS). Interestingly, the intent

of the QMS is similar to kaitiakitanga – both are focused on the sustainability of the fishery – but

they differ slightly as the QMS seeks to maintain the fishery at sustainable levels (the maximum

sustainable yield: a ‘tipping-points’ approach), whereas a kaitiakitanga approach might aim to

enhance the mauri of the fishery.

Enhancing mauri is not solely dependent upon the action of taking fish in a sustainable manner –

it also includes contributing mātauranga Māori to the collective understanding of the fishery and

the role iwi play in decision-making. In order to be fully effective, all actions should be based on

kaitiakitanga principles and measures such as a rahui (ban) need to be universally applied across

all sectors: commercial, recreational, and customary. A number of statutory tools are available to

accomplish this, including Taiapure and Mahinga Mātaitai reserves, which can be established under

the Fisheries Act 1996. Such measures give Māori better control over local fisheries and recognise

their role as kaitiaki.

Some iwi organisations are also exploring how to use their fishing quota more efficient and

sustainably. One example being examined, is the Icelandic model, where 97% of each fish is used.

The highest yielding product is the skin, sold to fashion houses such as Gucci and Dolce&Gabbana.

Nutraceuticals are also derived, leaving the fillet as one of the least-valued products. This is a stark

contrast to the NZ model where the fillet is virtually the only product.

For many Māori the ability to catch/gather their own kaimoana is very important. The maintenance

of the fishery for subsistence, pleasure and traditional and customary practices is therefore of

similar importance. Under the Fisheries Act, a proportion of the total allowable catch is set aside

for customary fishing. This is typically used to obtain kai moana for specific events such as tangi or

weddings. However, much of the fish caught by Māori is likely to be obtained in accordance with

the recreational fishing regulations. As a consequence, the amount of fish available to individuals

and their whanau is reduced as the recreational the catch is spread more thinly, for instance,

through declining bag limits. The daily bag limit for recreational fishers has progressively been

reduced from 30 to 20 snapper in 1993, 15 in 1994, 9 in 1997 (Ministry for Primary Industries 2013j), and 7 in 2014, and further reductions may be required to allow the snapper stock to rebuild.

6.1.3 SNAPPER (TĀMURE)

Snapper are the dominant fish in northern inshore marine communities, and occupy a wide range

of habitats including rocky reefs and areas of sand and mud bottom. They are most abundant in

15m to 60m water depth, but can also be found in depths of about 200m (Ministry for Primary

Industries 2013b). Snapper reach sexual maturity sometime between their second and fifth year,

with spawning occurring in spring and summer (Francis & Pankhurst 1988). Adult fish often form

transient spawning aggregations in the same locations each year (Zeldis et al. 2005; Jackson

& Moran 2012). The distribution of snapper eggs suggests that spawning aggregations in the

Hauraki Gulf are often associated with regions of high plankton densities (see Figure 6-1 for a

typical example of egg distribution), suggesting that adult fish choose spawning locations that

can support high feeding rates in larvae (Zeldis et al. 2005). High water temperatures and food

abundance appear to be critical for the survival of snapper larvae and the subsequent success of

the year class. In years where food is plentiful, snapper larvae are up to 30 times more abundant,

which often leads to higher abundances of juvenile and adult snapper in subsequent years (Zeldis

et al. 2005; Hamer et al. 2010).

Snapper larvae spend 17–33 days in the plankton before settling in the shallow waters of harbours

and estuaries (Sim-Smith et al. 2012). Juvenile snapper less than 6 months old prefer to settle

in areas that have complex biological habitats, such as seagrass beds, horse mussel beds and

sponge gardens (Usmar 2009; Sim-Smith et al. 2012; Lowe 2013). Historically, soft-sediment, subtidal green-lipped mussels beds were also likely to be an important settlement for snapper (McLeod 2009), though no research has been conducted on the recruitment of snapper to green-lipped mussel beds. These biological habitats may offer fish higher food abundance, and a refuge from predators and water currents. Subtidal seagrass and mussel beds within the Hauraki Gulf have

almost completely disappeared (McLeod 2009; Turner & Schwarz 2006), and this loss of settlement

habitat for juvenile snapper may have resulted in reductions in snapper abundance. After around 6

months, snapper gradually move out of the shallows and disperse around the coastal environment,

occupying a wide range of habitats from rocky reefs, bare mud/sand and turfing algae (Parsons et

al. 2014). Migration rates can be high in juvenile and sub-adult snapper, and fish have been recorded

to travel up to 300 km from their settlement estuary (Hamer et al. 2005).

Snapper are generalist feeders, who consume a wide range of prey including crustaceans, shellfish,

worms, fish and urchins (Godfriaux 1969, Usmar 2012). Protected snapper and crayfish populations

have a positive effect on kelp forest cover and primary productivity in the Hauraki Gulf through

the consumption of kina (Evechinus chloroticus) (Babcock et al. 1999; Shears & Babcock 2002). Kina grazing creates and maintains reef or urchin barrens by denuding kelp cover and preventing its

re-establishment. Consequently, kelp-free urchin barrens tend to be more prevalent in areas where

fishing is allowed, and less prevalent in protected areas such as marine reserves (Babcock et al. 1999, Shears & Babcock 2002).

Snapper is a highly prized and intensively fished species. The Hauraki Gulf is a nationally significant for its large contribution to the overall snapper stock. It is the most targeted commercial species in the Gulf, and snapper yields (by weight) are greater than any other species. Snapper are also New Zealand’s most sought-after recreational saltwater fish (Bradford 1999). As a result, fishing has had a major effect on the size and characteristics of the Hauraki Gulf snapper population, with the overall spawning stock biomass of the combined Hauraki Gulf and Bay of Plenty substocks being reduced by around 80% (Figure 6-2), and the population becoming dominated by small fish. The Hauraki Gulf is part of the “Snapper 1” (SNA1) quota management area, which is subdivided into three substocks: East Northland, Hauraki Gulf and Bay of Plenty (Figure 6-3).

The current biomass of snapper in the Hauraki Gulf – Bay of Plenty substock is below its soft limit,

as defined in accordance with MPI’s harvest strategy standard (Ministry of Fisheries 2008). That

situation triggers the need for a formal, time-constrained rebuilding plan. The interim target for the

SNA1 stock is 40% of the unfished biomass, but the actual target will be determined through the

SNA1 strategy group, which MPI have established (see Case Study: Snapper management decision).

Surveys of marine reserves also demonstrate the effects of fishing on snapper populations.

Fished populations around marine reserves have low numbers of mainly young snapper that are

below or near the legal size limit, while protected populations contain large numbers of snapper,

with a high proportion of older fish above the legal size (Sivaguru 2007, Haggitt et al. 2010). For

example, between 2000 and 2007 the mean densities of legally harvestable snapper around the

Cape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine Reserve have varied from 1% to 14% of densities inside the

reserve (Sivaguru 2007). Similarly, between 2000 and 2012 the mean density of legally harvestable

snapper around the Te Whanganui-a-Hei (Hahei) Marine Reserve varied from 0% to 28% of mean

densities within the reserve (Haggitt et al. 2010, Haggitt unpublished data). In contrast, densities of

undersized snapper outside these reserves frequently exceeded mean densities inside the reserves.

Mean snapper size ranged from 289 mm to 404 mm in the Cape Rodney to Okakari Point Marine

Reserve (cf. 148 mm to 242 mm outside) between spring 2000 and autumn 2007, and 233 mm to

323 mm in the Hahei Marine Reserve (cf. 144 mm to 290 mm outside) between spring 2000 and

autumn 2010.

While fishing is likely to have the greatest influence on the Hauraki Gulf snapper population,

there are a range of other factors which could potentially compound fishing effects. These are

summarised in Table 2. It is also notable that snapper growth rates have been declining in recent

years, which has resulted in a substantial net weight loss in the SNA 1 fishery over the past

two decades. Slowing growth rates will undoubtedly have a negative impact on the ongoing

productivity of the snapper stock (Walsh et al. 2011). The causes of slowing growth have not been

determined but they could include a combination of: changes in environmental quality and

the resources used by snapper, increasing competition for available resources as the snapper

population increases, and fisheries-induced evolutionary selection for slower growth (see Enberg et

al. 2012 for a recent review of fishing-induced evolution of growth).

Overall, the existing data suggests that fishing has reduced the snapper population by around

80% or more in the Hauraki Gulf and Bay of Plenty, with the greatest impact on old, large fish. This

represents a major reduction in the population of an individual species, and has contributed to an

alteration in the functioning and intrinsic values of reef ecosystems within the Hauraki Gulf. The

effects of removing snapper from the ecosystem are likely to be compounded by fishing methods

such as bottom trawling that physically disturb the seafloor, and kill or injure benthic species (see

Section 6.1.6). Seabird mortality from snapper long lining is also a serious concern (see section 6.11).

Snapper growth rates have also slowed. The reasons for this have not been determined, but the

consequences are likely to include a reduction in snapper productivity. From a Māori perspective,

the mauri of this species could be regarded greatly diminished (see the Māori Fishing Case Study).

Figure 6-1: Density of <24 hour old snapper eggs obtained during a December 1992 survey

(data provided by John Zeldis, NIWA).

6.1.4 CASE STUDY: SNAPPER MANAGEMENT DECISION

The Hauraki Gulf Marine Park falls within the boundaries of the “Snapper 1” (SNA1) quota

management area, which for assessment purposes is subdivided into three substocks: East

Northland, Hauraki Gulf and Bay of Plenty. The management of the SNA 1 fishery was reviewed in

2013 in response to new information, which indicated that the actual estimated catch of 9,065

tonnes was well above the total allowable catch of 7,550 tonnes in the 2011–12 fishing year (Ministry for Primary Industries 2013b).

Commercial landings of snapper have been relatively stable since 1997, with 4614 tonnes taken

in 2011–12. Most of the snapper taken commercially is caught by bottom long-lining and bottom

trawling (Ministry for Primary Industries 2013a, b). In March 2014, 108 quota holders were entitled to snapper annual catch entitlements (ACE) of more than 1 tonne in the SNA1 stock (Register Of Quota Holders, FishServe, March 3 2014). However, the quota tends to be concentrated within a smaller number of organisations. Over 50% of the ACE was held by two companies, and 80% is held by 12 companies. Māori interests were entitled to around 41% of the annual snapper catch.

The combined recreational and customary allowance for SNA 1 was 2600 tonnes in 2011–12, but the

actual recreation catch was estimated to be around 3754 tonnes. By far the greatest recreational

catch was taken from the Hauraki Gulf (2490 tonnes). Most recreational catch is taken by boatbased

fishers (about 85%) using hook and line methods (over 90%), but there is also targeting of

snapper by land-based fishers using surfcasting and kontiki (long-line) methods, and by netting

and spear-fishing. Recreational catch is considered to have been increasing quite rapidly since the

1990s, particularly in the inner Hauraki Gulf (Ministry for Primary Industries 2013a). Information on customary Māori catch of SNA 1 is incomplete. Consequently, customary catch levels are uncertain.

The current estimated biomass of snapper in the Hauraki Gulf-Bay of Plenty substock is 306,000

tonnes (95% confidence intervals 288,000–325,000 tonnes), which equates to 19% of the unfished

biomass (95% confidence intervals 15 –23%) (Ministry for Primary Industries 2013b). The Ministry for Primary Industries has an interim target of managing the stock at 40% of the unfished biomass

(40% B0). The Hauraki Gulf-Bay of Plenty substock is regarded to be as ‘about as likely as not’ below rebuilding plan. Soft limits provide a buffer, which allows action to be taken before stocks reach their hard limit (10% B0). Breaching the hard limit would possibly lead to the closure of the fishery (Ministry of Fisheries 2008).

Model projections based on the assumption that snapper recruitment over the next five years

would be similar to recruitment observed over the most recent ten years for which data is available

(i.e. 1994 to 2004), predict that the spawning biomass of the Hauraki Gulf-Bay of Plenty substock

will slowly increase over the next five years (Ministry for Primary Industries 2013b). However,

recruitment between 1994 and 2004 was well above average and no recruitment information is

available for the subsequent decade. If the full series of recruitment observations (1970–2004) is

used, the five year projections suggest that the Hauraki Gulf-Bay of Plenty substock will decline

over the next five years.

Longer term (2050) projections suggest that maintaining the previous TAC (that was in place from

1997 to September 2013) would lead to the substock steadily declining towards collapse (i.e., levels

below the hard limit of 10% B0). Rebuilding the biomass to 40% B0 is predicted to allow annual

yields to increase from the existing TAC of 7,550 tonnes to 12,000 tonnes (with around 9,900

tonnes coming from the Hauraki Gulf-Bay of Plenty substocks). However, this would require a

medium to long-term reduction in catch. Modelling predicts that for the Hauraki Gulf-Bay of Plenty

substocks, the interim target of 40% B0:

• would be reached in less than 24 years if a 60% reduction in the TAC was implemented,

• would be reached in around 36 years if a 40% reduction in the TAC was implemented,

• is unlikely to be achieved by 2050, if a 20% reduction in the TAC was implemented.

MPI’s harvest strategy specifies that stocks like snapper, which have fallen below their soft limit,

should be rebuilt back to at least the target level in a time frame which is no longer than twice the

time it would take if all harvesting ceased (Ministry of Fisheries 2008). Estimates suggest that for

the Hauraki Gulf-Bay of Plenty substock, this would have required the overall TAC of 7,550 tonnes

to be cut by 56% (Ministry for Primary Industries 2013b). However, the actual catch of snapper was

estimated to be 9,065 tonnes, and consequently, the actual reduction needed to be greater than

56% to achieve the interim target within the required time frame.

After taking into account a range of additional social, cultural, and economic factors the Minister

for Primary Industries set the TAC at 8050 tonnes. In addition, the following mix of compulsory and

voluntary measures is to be implemented:

• a reduction in the recreational bag limit from 9 to 7 fish per day, and increased the recreational size limit from 27 cm to 30 cm,

• a move on rule to reduce juvenile mortality, whereby commercial fishers are required to move fishing spots when small juvenile fish are making up a significant portion of their catch,

• a requirement to report all small catch under the commercial legal size to obtain more

information on juvenile mortality,

• a maximum size on fish caught on commercial long-lines to reduce mortality of non-market, but recreationally important, large fish,

• deployment of cameras or observer coverage on:

–– 25% of SNA 1 trawl vessels by 01 Dec 2013

–– 50% of all trawl vessels by 01 Oct 2014

–– 100% of all trawl vessels by 01 Oct 2015

• Vessel Monitoring Systems (VMS) on all commercial vessels,

• a scientific tagging survey to obtain up to date and reliable information on the status of the

SNA 1 stock,

• the development of new gear technology (Precision Seafood Harvesting) aimed at reducing bycatch, avoiding small fish, and improving catch quality.

A Snapper 1 Strategy Group has also been established to develop a long term plan for the

management of the SNA1 stock. During 2014 and into 2015, the scope of this group’s discussions

will include establishing objectives and appropriate target levels for the SNA1 fishery, setting

research and monitoring priorities, determining catch allocation, and establishing appropriate

responses to the impacts of fishing on productivity, other fish stocks, and the marine environment.

Membership of the SNA1 strategy group includes the commercial, recreational, and customary

fishing sectors, and the group is convened by an independent Chair. Non-extractive stakeholders

are not currently represented, although some hold strong views about the SNA 1 fishery, particularly

about the management target, and interactions with the broader ecosystem through incidental

catch, habitat disturbance and trophic cascades.

To come close to the REMAK approach endorsed by the Hauraki Gulf Forum, snapper catches in

the Gulf would need to be reduced significantly. A more holistic approach would also need to be

taken toward the management of the snapper stock, with a broader focus on ecosystem function

rather than simply maintaining sustainable catches. The establishment of the SNA1 strategy group

provides an opportunity to move towards this outcome. However, the omission of non-extractive

users from the group suggests that the management focus remains mainly geared toward

utilisation, and that less weight may be given towards other potential outcomes.

6.1.6 BENTHIC DISTURBANCE

Bottom trawling and dredging are relatively indiscriminate methods of fishing, which capture,

disturb and injure both target and non-target species. They also affect habitat quality by removing

emergent biota (e.g. see Figure 6-7) and physical features, and evening out seabed sediments. Such

disturbance has important consequences for seafloor biodiversity, which is strongly related to local

variation in sediment characteristics and the presence of emergent features (see Thrush et al. 2001

and references within). For instance, a recent comparison of adjoining trawled and untrawled areas

in the Marlborough Sounds showed that the fished areas have muddier sediments with less shell–

gravel, reduced habitat complexity, reduced cover of emergent biota, and low proportions of large

and rarer shellfish (Handley et al. 2014). The environmental significance of bottom trawling and

dredging impacts has led to these activities being ranked the third equal (with increased sediment

loads) and seventh highest of 65 identified threats to marine habitats in New Zealand respectively5

(MacDiarmid et al. 2012).

Bottom trawling is prohibited south of a line running approximately between Kawau Island and

Colville Bay, and from a number of inshore zones on the eastern side of Coromandel Peninsula (see

Figure 5-8). Trawling is also prohibited in a number of cable zones in the Hauraki Gulf. However, it is still one of the most commonly used methods of catching fish, accounting for around 30% to 40%

of the total catch in the Gulf (Ministry of Fisheries 2009b, Hauraki Gulf Forum 2010), and occurring

over a wide area (Figure 5-9). Around 12,450 bottom trawls occurred in the Hauraki Gulf during

the three year period from 1 January 2011 to 1 January 2014 (unpublished data, Ministry for Primary

Industries).

Page 65 GRAPHS COPY AND PASTE

Table 1: Status of major Hauraki Gulf commercial finfish stocks reported in MPI’s 2013 Stock

Status Table (16 October 2013), with comments obtained from the 2013 plenary report (MPI,

2013). Note that the extent of quota management areas vary among species, but are generally

larger than the Hauraki Gulf.

COPY AND PASTE

GRAPH page 71

Table 2: Major human influences on snapper populations. Information has been summarised

from Parsons et al. (2014).

Effect Impact on snapper population

Incidental fishing

effects

Spawning

disturbance

Disruption of spawning events by fishing may decrease the

reproductive output of snapper.

Bottom

disturbance

Reduced habitat quality could affect the environmental carrying

capacity for snapper.

Alteration of prey

availability

Fishing can directly and indirectly alter the availability of prey

species.

Land-based effects

Increased

nutrients

Small increases in nutrients could increase the availability of

food (plankton) for snapper larvae. However, large increases in

nutrient inputs could be detrimental to snapper health if they

decreased foraging ability at high turbidity levels, diminished

seagrass habitats due to low light levels, and increased incidences

of harmful algae blooms and low dissolved oxygen levels.

Increased

sediment

• High concentrations of suspended sediments decrease the

foraging ability of snapper and impair their gill function.

• Sediment alters habitat characteristics and quality.

• Sediment affects the availability of prey species.

Toxic compounds

The effect of toxic compounds on snapper has not been specifically

studied. Currently, few if any sites in the Hauraki Gulf

are likely have contaminant concentrations that could cause

population level affects.

Habitat

modification

Dredging, trawling, reclamation and construction results in the

loss or reduced quality of habitats used by snapper.

Aquaculture

• Mussel farms provide additional food and habitat complexity

for snapper.

• Mussels may extract snapper eggs, though the extent and

effect of this predation is unknown.

Invasive species Invasive species that have been accidentally introduced into NZ

may be a food source, competitor or predator of snapper.

Climate change The impact of climate change on snapper

7. Adequacy of the response

Whāia te pe tawhiti kia tata, whāia te pae tata kia maua – Pursue the

distant pathways of your dreams, so they may become your reality.

The Hauraki Gulf Marine Park Act requires the State of the Environment report to include information on progress towards integrated management and responses to the issues by the Forum (see Section 4.2). The initiation of Sea Change – Tai Timu Tai Pari Plan process in 2013 was a significant step towards better integration. The process is supported by mana whenua, DOC,

MPI, the Hauraki Gulf Forum, Auckland Council and Waikato Regional Council. It seeks to deliver

a mana-whenua and stakeholder-driven plan, which draws on the knowledge and capability

of communities to solve pressing ecological problems. The core work is being carried out by a

Stakeholder Working Group which was formed in December 2013. This group has the primary

responsibility for developing and drafting the plan. The group is expected to compile and analyse

evidence and work collaboratively to find innovative solutions to the problems facing the Gulf.

The composition of the Stakeholder Working Group was decided by more than 130 people from a

range of groups, from industry bodies to conservationists, and through mana whenua processes.

Leadership of the Sea Change – Tai Timu Tai Pari process is provided by a steering group, comprising 16 representatives of management agencies responsible for the Gulf (DOC, MPI, councils, and the Hauraki Gulf Forum) and mana whenua ( http://www.seachange.org.nz/" rel="nofollow">www.seachange.org.nz ).

The policy is implemented through draft national inshore finfish and shellfish plans (Ministry

of Fisheries 2011b, Ministry of Fisheries 2011c), which link the environment and use outcomes

described in Fisheries 2030 and the management of particular fish stocks. These plans group fish

stocks (as defined by target species and quota management areas) in relation to fishing pressure

and biological vulnerability to facilitate combined objective-setting and service delivery. It is

important to note that fisheries plans are an expression of management approaches and actions

to be taken to implement legislative obligations. That is, fisheries plans do not supersede or

modify any legislative requirements, but the Minister must take them into account when making

sustainability decisions.

Annual operational plans sit below national fisheries plans. These outline specific actions to be

taken in the year ahead, and the rationale for those actions. Those actions can cover any aspect

of fisheries management including administration, stakeholder engagement, research, data

collection, assessments, and enforcement (Ministry for Primary Industries 2012a, b).

Another key component of the framework relevant to management of the Gulf’s fisheries is the

harvest strategy standard (Ministry of Fisheries 2008). This standard is considered by MPI to be bestpractice policy guidance for developing targets and limits with which to manage fish stocks in the Quota Management System (Ministry for Primary Industries 2013j). The harvest strategy standard is focused on single species fishery management, while noting the need to incorporate other matters in fisheries management decision-making, e.g., in accordance with the environmental principles of the Fisheries Act (Ministry of Fisheries 2008).

Comparing these strategic and planning documents to recent fisheries management decisions

highlights how the different outcomes and objectives have been interpreted. Despite the

apparent alignment between Fisheries 2030 and the Hauraki Gulf Marine Park Act, recent fisheries

management decisions deviate from the Forum’s vision of enhanced fisheries with improved

environmental outcomes. For example, increased scallop harvests have been provided for, even

though dredging is known to reduce habitat heterogeneity and biological diversity, and it will be

used to catch scallops in areas known to contain sensitive marine habitats (see Section 6.1). For

crayfish, catch limits were reduced to increase crayfish biomass and catch rates in accordance with

the recommendations of the National Rock Lobster Management Group (National Rock Lobster

Management Group 2014). However, the ecosystem functions of crayfish were not considered and

provided for when the new biomass target was set. The restoration of those functions is likely to

require a higher biomass target, or the use of complementary management methods. Finally, while

the interim management target for SNA1 was set higher than the previous biomass target, the

final management decision diverged from both it and the harvest strategy standard (Ministry of

Fisheries 2008). The harvest strategy standard states that stocks falling below the ‘soft limit’ should

be rebuilt back to at least the target level in a time frame which is no longer than twice the time it would take if all harvesting ceased. This would have required the TAC for the Hauraki Gulf-Bay of Plenty snapper substocks to be cut by 56%.

All of these decisions adopted the lowest acceptable target allowed for under Section 13 of the

and seabirds, which were jointly developed by central government agencies (Ministry for Primary

Industries 2013i, h). Integration of fisheries and aquaculture is addressed through legislative

provisions that include considering the effects of proposed aquaculture developments on fishing,

and the potential for compensation where commercial fishing for QMS stocks is affected. Amongst

other actions in the fisheries management arena, evidence for integration is more limited. For

example, the Snapper Strategy Group was formed following the review of management regime in

SNA1. During 2014 and into 2015, the scope of this group’s discussions will include objectives and

appropriate target levels for the SNA1 fishery, research priorities and monitoring, catch allocation,

and the management of the impacts of fishing on SNA1 productivity, other fish stocks, and the

marine environment (S. Halley, pers. comm.). Membership of this group comprises the commercial,

recreational, and customary fishing sectors, and the group is convened by an independent Chair.

Similarly, the National Rock Lobster Management Group includes representatives of customary,

recreational and commercial fishing sectors and MPI. The group’s role is to work together to

develop rock lobster fisheries that benefit all (fishing) sectors while ensuring sustainability

(National Rock Lobster Management Group 2014). Neither of these groups appear to contain the

expertise needed to develop a more holistic approach to the management of these fisheries.

Including environmental specialists and/or marine ecologists18 could assist in moving toward

integrated, ecosystem based fisheries management.

Ecosystem-based management is accepted as current best practice fisheries management (e.g.,

FAO 2008). Approaches to ecosystem-based fisheries management vary across a spectrum (Holliday

& Gautam 2005) that ranges from:

• Single species management, with issues such as protected species, non-target species, and

habitat factors also incorporated into management decisions.

• Taking into account interactions among multiple species, and incorporating both natural and man-made factors in fisheries assessments and management decisions.

• Taking a comprehensive, multiple sector approach that takes into account human activities and values across all sectors that impact the condition and sustainability of ecosystems.

Most countries, including New Zealand are situated at the lower end of this spectrum. Shifting

from this position would require establishing management goals in relation to the sustainable use

of an interconnected ecosystem, rather than just the (sustainable) utilisation of target species (FAO

2008). This approach is inherent in the Hauraki Gulf Marine Park Act, and is not dissimilar from

the approach of the Fisheries Act and fisheries policy documents such as Fisheries 2030 (i.e., the

conservation of biodiversity and the function of ecological systems). While not at odds with current

legislation and policy documents, it does require a significant shift in how fisheries management is

implemented. If done effectively, the adoption of an ecosystem-focused, integrated management

approach would represent significant progress towards achieving the Forum’s vision.

In September 2014 it was announced the National Government would, if re-elected, introduce

a recreational fishing park covering areas of the inner Hauraki Gulf as part of a wider reform

of marine protection legislation ( https://www.national.org.nz/news/news/media-releases/" rel="nofollow - https://www.national.org.nz/news/news/media-releases/

detail/2014/09/07/national-to-create-two-recreational-fishing-parks).

In the Hauraki Gulf, recent marine protection initiatives have included attempts to develop a

marine reserve in the waters around Great Barrier Island. The prospect of a Aotea/Great Barrier

Island marine reserve has been aired for approximately 20 years, and at one stage it progressed

through most phases of an ultimately unsuccessful central government process. It was recently

picked up by the Great Barrier Local Board, who are now leading an initiative to investigate the

creation of a marine protected area around Aotea (Great Barrier Island) based on the following

principles (Great Barrier Environment Strategy Planning Committee 2013):

• The banning of commercial fishing within an agreed coastal area.

• Local residents retaining the legitimate right to fish for the table with restrictions to be agreed, but including the ability to catch fish to supply local commercial outlets.

• The creation of some fishing exclusion/marine reserve areas within the above context in areas to be agreed and in discussion with Ngati Rehua Ngatiwai ki Aotea.

The Friends of the Hauraki Gulf have also proposed the development of a marine reserve off the

northern coast of Waiheke Island (Friends of the Hauraki Gulf 2013). This has been controversial,

including amongst island residents, and the future of that proposal is unclear.

To date, marine protected areas in the Hauraki Gulf have generally been developed through ad hoc

processes. The Sea Change – Tai Timu Tai Pari process provides an opportunity to grow the network

of marine protected areas in a more structured and strategic manner than has previously occurred.

Efforts are also being made to restore marine habitats, with early signs of success (see Revive Our

Gulf ). If implemented effectively, these two initiatives could deliver on the Forum’s concept of a

regenerating network of marine protected areas.

In September 2014 it was announced the National Government would, if re-elected, introduce

a recreational fishing park covering areas of the inner Hauraki Gulf as part of a wider reform

of marine protection legislation ( https://www.national.org.nz/news/news/media-releases/" rel="nofollow - https://www.national.org.nz/news/news/media-releases/

detail/2014/0

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